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Hajj
or Pilgrimage:
(Note:
The superscript-numbers [e.g., intention2]
that
appear in the text [in
pink]
refer to the numbers of the explanatory footnotes that
appear in this chapter)
European Views on
Adoption of Pilgrimage by Islam:
As an institution Hajj
1
existed, before the advent of Islam, from a very remote
antiquity. Modern European criticism takes the view that its
adoption by Islam, with certain reforms, of course, was due
to several causes which sprang up after the Prophet’s
flight to Madinah. Chief among these causes are said to be
the victory won by Islam at Badr which, it is opined, made
the Prophet look forward to the conquest of Makkah, and the
final rupture with the Jews, whom the Prophet had, at first,
hoped to win over to his cause. Hughes advances this theory
in his Dictionary of Islam under the heading
"Ka‘bah’’:
"When Muhammad found
himself established in al-Madinah, with a very
good prospect of his obtaining possession of Makkah, and
its historic associations, he seems to have withdrawn his
thoughts from Jerusalem and its Sacred Rock and to fix
them on the house at Bakkah as the home founded for
mankind.... The Jews proving obdurate and there being
little chance of his succeeding in establishing his claim
as their prophet, spoken of by Moses, he changes the
qiblah, or direction for prayer, from Jerusalem to
Makkah. The house at Makkah is made "a place of resort
unto men and a sanctuary.’’
Other European writers have advanced
the same theory, and recently A.J. Wensinck has incorporated
it into the Encyclopaedia of Islam. Writing under
"Hadjdj’’, he says:
"Muhammad’s interest in
the Hadjdj was first aroused in al-Medina. Several causes
contributed to this, as Snouck Hurgronje has shown in his
Mekkaansche Feest. The brilliant success of the
battle of Badr had aroused in him thoughts of a conquest
of Mecca. The preparations for such a step would
naturally be more successful if the secular as well as
the religious interests of his companions were aroused.
Muhammad had been deceived in his expectations regarding
the Jewish community in Medina and the disagreements with
the Jews had made a religious breach with them
inevitable. To this period belongs the origin of doctrine
of the religion of Abraham, the alleged original type of
Judaism and Islam. The Ka‘ba now gradually advances
into the centre of religious worship, the father of
monotheism built it with his son Isma‘il and it was
to be a ‘place of assembly for mankind.’’
.... In this period also the Ka‘ba was made a kibla
– This is the position of affairs in the year 2 of
the Hidjra.’’
On the face of it, it appears to be a
very plausible theory but it is in flat contradiction to
historical facts. The battle of Badr was fought in the month
of Ramadzan, in the second year of Hijrah, and
the final rupture with the Jews came in the third year after
the battle of Uhud; while the Ka‘bah was made a
qiblah sixteen months after the Hijrah (Bu.
8:31), that is to say, about three months before the battle
of Badr. The structure which, according to Hughes, Wensinck
and Hurgronje, was built on the victory of Badr and the
rupture with the Jews, the idea of formulating a doctrine of
the religion of Abraham, the father of monotheism, as a
prototype of Islam, Judaism and Christianity; of the
sacredness of the Ka‘bah and its connection with
the names of Abraham and Ishmael; of the Ka‘bah being
made a qiblah and of the institution of Hajj
with prospects of conquering Makkah; all this existed
not only long before the battle of Badr but even before the
Prophet’s flight to Madinah. The religion of Abraham as
pure monotheism is mentioned in a chapter of the Quran
(surah) belonging to the middle Makkah period, where
Abraham is also called a hanif: "Surely Abraham was a
model of virtue, obedient to Allah, upright
(hanif).... Then we revealed to thee: Follow the
faith (milla) of Abraham, the upright one
(hanif), and he was not of the
polytheists’’ (16:120-123). And again in a chapter
belonging to the last Makkah period: "My Lord has guided me
to the right path – a right religion, the faith
(milla) of Abraham, the upright one (hanif),
and he was not of the polytheists’’ (6:162). It is
surprising to find Orientalists so learned ignoring such
broad facts of history for the sake of a pet
theory.
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1
The word hajj means, literally,
repairing to a thing for the sake of a
visit (al-qasd li-l-ziyara) (R.), and
in the technicality of law the repairing
to Bait-Allah (the House of Allah) to
observe the necessary devotions
(iqamat-an-li-l-nusuk) (R.). Bait-Allah
is one of the names by which the Ka‘bah is
known; and nusuk means
‘ibadah (worship or devotion), or
ta‘a (obedience); it is also the
plural of nasikah meaning dhabihah
(the animal that is sacrificed) (N.). From the
same root and carrying the significance of
ibadah, is mansik, and its plural
manasik is particularly used to signify
the acts of devotion prescribed in hajj.
It is generally under the head manasik
that injunctions relating to hajj are
mentioned in collections of
Tradition.
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Sacredness of
Makkah and the Ka‘bah Recognised in Earliest
Revelations:
Similarly, the sacredness of
Makkah and its connection with the names of Abraham and
Ishmael, finds clear mention in the early Makkah
revelations. In one of the earliest chapters, Makkah is
described as "this city made secure’’ (95:3). In
another equally early revelation, it is referred to simply
as the City: "Nay! I call to witness this City – and
thou wilt be made free from obligation in this City –
and begetter and he whom he begot’’ (90:1-3);
where, in the last words, Abraham and Ishmael are referred
to. The Ka‘bah is called al-Bait
al-ma‘mur, or the House that is visited in a
revelation of the same period (52:4), while another
revelation of the early Makkah period speaks of
al-Masjid-al-Haram or the Sacred Mosque (17:1). The
sacredness of Makkah is spoken of in still clearer words in
revelations belonging to the middle Makkah period: "I am
commanded only to serve the Lord of this City, Who has made
it sacred, and His are all things’’
(27:91). The names of Abraham and Ishmael in connection
with Makkah, its sacredness and the fact of its being a
place of resort for men, also find mention in the middle
Makkah revelations: "And when Abraham said: My Lord, Make
this City secure, and save me and my sons from worshipping
idols .... Our Lord, I have settled a part of my offspring
in a valley unproductive of fruit near Thy Sacred House, our
Lord, that they may keep up prayer; therefore make the
hearts of some people yearn towards them and provide them
with fruits.’’ (14:35-37).
Why the
Ka‘bah was not made Qiblah
Earlier:
The theory thus built up by
European savants has no foundation whatever. The sacredness
of Makkah and its great Mosque, the connection therewith of
the names of Abraham and Ishmael, and the fact of Makkah
being made a resort for men, are all themes of the earliest
as well as the later revelations. It is true that the
various commandments and prohibitions were revealed
gradually, and that the command to make the
Ka‘bah a qiblah was revealed at Madinah,
but even this happened before the battle of Badr.
Notwithstanding all that was said in the Quran with regard
to the sacredness of Makkah and of the Ka‘bah,
notwithstanding the fact that pilgrimage to Makkah had been
ordained as a duty of the Muslims towards the close of the
Prophet’s stay at Makkah, as shown later,
notwithstanding even the fact that it was the Prophet’s
own desire that the Ka‘bah should be made his
qiblah (Bu. 2:30; 8:31; 65, sura 2, ch. 18),
he continued to follow the qiblah of the last prophet
that had passed away before him, that is, Jerusalem, and
awaited the Divine direction. The Quran recognized the truth
of all the prophets, including the prophets of Israel, and
as Jesus was the last of those prophets and his
qiblah the same as that of the Israelite
prophets,2
namely, the temple at Jerusalem, which place was honoured by
the Quran (17:1) as al-Masjid al-Aqsa (lit., the
Remote Mosque), he retained it as his qiblah
until he received an express revelation to turn towards the
Sacred Mosque. Moreover, he did not receive that commandment
when he was at Makkah among the polytheists when it might
have been said that he was scheming to win over the Arabs;
but it was after his coming to Madinah, at a time when
relations with the Jews were still friendly, when the
prospects of winning over the Arabs were as distant as ever,
and when war with the Quraish at Makkah had become
inevitable, that the Prophet received a revelation to turn
to the Ka‘bah as the future qiblah of the Muslim
world. For sixteen long months at Madinah, he had continued
to pray with his back to Makkah, the avowedly sacred
territory, because he would not do anything of his own
desire. As soon as he came to Madinah, he felt the
difficulty that he could no more, as at Makkah, turn his
face to both places, to the Holy temple at Jerusalem and to
the Sacred Mosque at Makkah; he realized that in turning his
face to one he must turn his back on the other; and however
much he desired that the Sacred Mosque at Makkah should be
his qiblah, still he would not turn his back to the
qiblah of the last prophet before him, until he
received a Divine commandment to that effect.
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2
It should be noted that the Christians themselves
ceased to follow the qiblah of
Christ.
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When was Pilgrimage
First Instituted:
The Hajj was a
recognized institution in the first and second years of
Hijrah before the commencement of the war with the
Quraish. The second chapter which was, in the main, revealed
in the first and second years of Hijrah, is full of
directions relating to hajj, the context whereof
shows clearly that fighting had not actually taken place,
though prospects of a war were in sight. The months in which
hajj is to be performed are thus spoken of: "They ask
thee concerning the new moons; say, They are times appointed
for men and for the pilgrimage" (2:189). And again: "The
months of the pilgrimage are well-known" (2:197). Between
these two verses, which speak of the months of hajj,
occur the verses by which the Muslims were permitted to take
up the sword to defend themselves: "And fight in the way of
Allah against those who fight against you" (2:190); from
which it will be seen that the details of hajj were
being given when fighting was as yet only permitted, and it
was after that that the actual fighting began. The details,
of hajj were, therefore, revealed before the battle
of Badr. The rules of conduct to be observed when proceeding
on hajj are also stated in the same context: "Whoever
determines the performance of the pilgrimage therein, there
shall be no immodest speech, nor abusing, nor altercation in
the pilgrimage" (2:197). The running between the hills of
Safa and Marwah (sa‘y) is spoken of in still
earlier verses: "The Safa and the Marwah are truly among the
signs of Allah, so whoever makes a pilgrimage to the House
or pays a visit3
to it, there is no blame on him if he goes round them"
(2:158). This permission was specifically granted because at
the time there were two idols on the Safa and the Marwah.
The going to ‘Arafat and Muzdalifah is also spoken of:
"So when you press on from ‘Arafat, remember Allah near
the Holy Monument" (2:198); and there is a clear injunction
to accomplish the hajj: "And accomplish the hajj
and the ‘umrah for Allah"
(2:196).
The mention of these details of
hajj is a proof that the institution of hajj
had already been recognized as part of the laws of
Islam. In fact, we find a Muslim, here and there, performing
the hajj in the earliest days when, on account of
some alliance, he deemed himself secure, it being
impossible, of course, for the generality of the Muslims.
Thus it is related of Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh that on
account of his friendship with Umayya ibn Khalf, a Quraish
chief, he went to Makkah to perform an ‘umrah
after the Hijrah and before the battle of Badr --
that is, in the first year of Hijrah -- and had
altercation with Abu Jahl, whom he threatened with cutting
off the Quraish trade with Syria (Bu. 64:2). He would not
have done so unless the institution of hajj had been
adopted by Islam. Hence it is clear that hajj was
instituted before the Hijrah took place, and while
the Prophet was still in Makkah. The chapter entitled
Al-Hajj was revealed towards the close of the
Prophet’s career at Makkah4
and it was in this chapter that hajj was proclaimed
to be an institution of Islam: "And proclaim to men the
hajj:5
they will come to thee on foot and on every lean camel,
coming from every remote path, that they may witness
benefits provided for them and mention the name of Allah on
appointed days over what He has given them of the cattle
quadruped, then eat of them and feed the distressed one, the
needy. Then let them accomplish their needful acts of
cleansing , and let them fulfil their vows and go round the
Ancient House" (22:27-29). These verses leave not the least
doubt that hajj was ordained as an Islamic
institution before the Hijrah.
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3
Hajj and
‘umrah, the latter of which is
translated as the minor pilgrimage but which may
more correctly be rendered as a visit, differ
slightly. The ‘umrah may be performed
at any time, while the hajj or the
pilgrimage proper, can only be performed at a
particular time. Of the ceremonies connected with
the pilgrimage proper, the staying in the plain of
‘Arafat is dispensed with in the case of
‘umrah.
4
Rodwell is certainly wrong in placing this
chapter among the latest Madinah revelations. The
best authorities are agreed that it was revealed at
Makkah, though some are of opinion that some of its
verses were revealed in the early days at Madinah,
but even this view is untenable. The verses
relating to hajj, however, are not placed in
this category. Muir puts this chapter at the close
of the Makkah suras of the fifth period, and
internal as well as external evidence shows this to
be correct. A recent writer concludes his
discussion as to the date of revelation of this
chapter with the following words: "To conclude:
Surah 22 is thoroughly homogeneous,
containing no elements from the Madinah period. And
(as was said a moment ago) much stronger evidence
than has thus far been offered must be produced
before it can be maintained that Makkan
suras were freely interpolated after the
Hijrah." (C.C. Torrey, The Jewish
Foundation of Islam, p. 100).
5
This verse is preceded by one in which Abraham
is spoken of: "And when We pointed to Abraham the
place of the House, saying: Associate naught with
Me, and purify My House for those who make circuits
and stand to pray and bow and prostrate
themselves." The words "Proclaim among men the
hajj" are, therefore, generally understood
to have been addressed to Abraham. Even if this
view is accepted, it is equally an address to the
Holy Prophet, for, as the context shows, the
mention of Abraham is only by way of parenthesis ;
and inasmuch as the pilgrimage is an ordinance
common to both the Abrahamic and the Islamic
faiths, the address is equally to both
prophets.
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Description of
the Ka‘bah:
As the chief features of the
hajj centre round the Ka‘bah, something
must be said about this building and its name. The
root-word Ka‘ba means it swelled or
became prominent (LL), or it became high and
exalted (‘ala-wa-rtafa‘a) (N) and
the Sacred House is called Ka‘bah on account of
its glory and exaltation (N). The Ka‘bah is a
rectangular building, almost in the centre of the Sacred
Mosque (Masjid al-Haram), whereof the front and back
walls (north-east and south-west) are each 40 feet in
length, and the two side-walls 35 feet each, the height
being 50 feet, the four walls running north-west ,
north-east, south-west and south-east.
The four corners of the building are
known by four different names, the north corner as
al-rukn al-‘Iraqi (after ‘Iraq), the south
corner as al-rukn al-Yamani (after Yemen), the west
corner as al-rukn al-Shami (after Sham or Syria) and
the east corner as al-rukn al-Aswad (after the
Hajar al-Aswad, or the Black stone). The four walls
of the Ka‘bah are covered with a black curtain
called Kiswa (lit.; clothing). The door of the
Ka‘bah is in the north –east wall, about
seven feet from the ground, not in the middle of the wall
but nearer the Black Stone. When the Ka‘bah is
opened, a staircase is placed in front of it to enable the
visitors to reach the entrance. Outside the building is an
open space, called al-Hijr (lit., prohibited),
marked by a semi-circular wall three feet high, running
opposite the north-west wall of the Ka‘bah, the
two ends of this wall being about six feet distant from the
north and west corners of the Ka‘bah, and the
central part about 37 feet from the wall. This part is also
called al-Hatim (from hatama meaning it
crushed), though Ibn ‘Abbas is reported as saying
that it should not be called by that name, as this name was
given to it in the days of Ignorance, and carried with it
the superstitious association of throwing there one’s
whip or shoe at the time of taking an oath (Bu. 63 :27). For
the purpose of making circuits, the Hijr is included
in the building. There are traditions showing that the
Hijr was considered by the Prophet to be part of the
building of the Ka‘bah (Bu. 25:42; M. 15:66). It
was for this reason that ‘Abd Allah ibn Zubair included
it in the building proper, but it was again left an open
space when the Ka‘bah was rebuilt after him by
Hajjaj.
In the east corner at the height of
about five feet is the Hajar al-Aswad (lit.; the
Black Stone) built into the wall. It is of a reddish
black colour about eight inches in diameter, and is now
broken into pieces held together by a silver band. The
Maqam Ibrahim must also be mentioned in connection
with the Ka‘bah. It means "the place of
Abraham," and the name is given to a very small building
within the Sacred Mosque, about five feet square, supported
on six columns eight feet high. This name, handed down from
antiquity from one generation to another, is a decided proof
of the connection of Abraham with the Ka‘bah,
and attention is drawn to this in the Quran in 3:96. But in
2:125, the words Maqam Ibrahim are used for the
Sacred House itself.
History of the
Ka‘bah:
The Ka‘bah is
stated in the Quran to be "the first House (of Divine
worship) appointed for men" (3:95), In one place it is
called al-Bait al-‘Atiq or the Ancient House
(22:29). It is also called al-Bait al-Haram (5:97),
or al-Muharram (14:37) which carries the same
significance as al-Haram, both meaning originally
al-mamnu‘ min-hu or that which is forbidden; in
other words, a place whereof the sanctity must not be
violated. There is nothing in the Quran, or the Tradition to
show when and by whom the Ka‘bah was first built; but
it is said to have been rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael: "And
when Abraham and Ishmael raised the foundations of the
House: Our Lord! Accept from us" (2:127). An earlier
revelation makes it clear that the Ka‘bah was
already there when Abraham left Ishmael in the wilderness of
Arabia: "Our Lord! I have settled a part of my offspring in
a valley unproductive of fruit near Thy Sacred House"
(14:37). It appears from this that Ishmael had been
purposely left near the sacred House; it was, in fact, under
a Divine commandment that Abraham took this step (Bu. 60:9).
It would seem that the Ka‘bah was then in a
demolished condition and was afterwards, when Ishmael grew
to manhood, rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael as stated in
2:127. In a long tradition of Ibn ‘Abbas, speaking of
Abraham leaving Ishmael and his mother near the
Ka‘bah, it is said: "And the House was then
rising above the surface of the earth like a mound, the
flood waters passing to its right and to its left" (Bu.
60:9). The tradition then goes on to narrate how long after
this, when Ishmael had grown to manhood and was a married
man, Abraham came to pay a visit to him and told him that
Almighty God had commanded him to build a house at the place
where the mound was, and how the father and the son built
the Ka‘bah. Besides being in a ruined condition,
it seems to have had idols placed in it and Abraham was
required to purify it of these. "And We enjoined Abraham and
Ishmael, saying: Purify My House for those who visit it and
those who abide in it for devotion and those who bow down
and those who prostrate themselves’’ (2:125).
Nearly the same words occur in an earlier revelation
(22:26).
The Ka‘bah was again
rebuilt by the Quraish6
when the Prophet was a young man, and he personally took
part in its building, carrying stones on his shoulders.
During the construction a dispute arose as to who should
place the Black stone in its place. Every tribe was desirous
of having this honour accorded to its representative.
Finally a settlement was arrived at, namely that the
decision of the man who made his appearance first in the
Ka‘bah should be accepted by all. Fortunately,
the man who appeared first was Muhammad, peace and blessings
of Allah be upon him, and there was an outcry that
al-Amin (the Faithful one) had come. The prophet
decided this dispute with his usual sagacity, placing the
stone in a cloth with his own hands, and then asking a
representative of each of the tribes to hold a corner of
that cloth and lift the stone to its position, the Prophet
himself fixing it in position. The Ka‘bah
remained as it was built by the Quraish until the time of
‘Abd Allah ibn Zubair, when the building having been
damaged by the Umayyad army which had besieged Makkah,
‘Abd Allah decided to rebuild it, instead of repairing
it, including the open space of Hijr in the building
itself. But after the fall of ‘Abd Allah, Hajjaj again
rebuilt it on the foundations of the structure erected by
the Quraish. And the building to-day rests on the same
foundations.
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6
The leading tribe of Makkah.
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Al-Masjid
al-Haram:
The Ka‘bah stands
in the centre of a parallelogram whose dimensions, as given
in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, are as follows:
N.-W. Side 545ft., S.-E side 553 ft., N.-E. Side 360 ft.,
S.W. Side 364 ft. This area is known as al-Masjid
al-Haram or the Sacred Mosque, the famous mosque of
Makkah. The name is met with in pre-Islamic literature
(En. Is.). In the Quran this name occurs in
revelations of the early Makkah period, as in 17:1. The area
of the Sacred Mosque contains, besides the
Ka‘bah, the Maqam Ibrahim and the
building over the fountain of Zamzam. The Sacred Mosque was
the centre of all administrative activities before Islam, as
within it was situated the Makkan Council Hall (Dar
al-Nadwah) where all important matters regarding the
weal or woe of the people were settled. Since the advent of
Islam, the Sacred Mosque has been the pivot of the
intellectual activities of Makkah, and the whole Muslim
world looks upon it as its central point.
Historical Evidence
of Antiquity of Ka‘bah:
The Quran claims the
Ka‘bah as the first house of Divine worship on
earth, and all available historical evidence upholds this
claim. It is sufficient to quote Muir.7
"A very high antiquity must be assigned to the main features
of the religion of Mecca... Diodorus Siculus, writing about
half a century before our era, says of Arabia washed by the
Red Sea, ‘there is, in this country, a temple greatly
revered by the Arabs.’ These words must refer to the
Holy House of Mecca, for we know of no other which ever
commanded such universal homage... Tradition represents the
Ka‘bah as from time immemorial the scene of
pilgrimage from all quarters of Arabia:–from Yemen and
Hadhramaut, from the shores of the Persian Gulf, the deserts
of Syria, and the distant environs of Hira and Mesopotamia,
men yearly flocked to Mecca. So extensive a homage must have
had its beginnings in an extremely remote age".
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7
Life of Mahomet. P. xc.
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Abrahamic Origin of
Chief Features of the Pilgrimage:
Not only does Muir recognize
"a very high antiquity" for the Ka‘bah but also
for "the main features of the religion of Mecca," that is to
say for the main features of hajj. In fact, as he
says, the sacredness of the territory around Makkah and the
fact of its being a centre of pilgrimage, can only have come
down from time immemorial, for there is no tradition or
record showing that it was introduced at any time within
historical memory. Some of the ceremonial is undoubtedly due
to Abraham as for instance the running between Safa and
Marwah (Sa‘y) which is in commemoration of
Hagar’s running to and fro to seek water for the baby
Ishmael, or the sacrifice which is in commemoration of
Abraham’s endeavour to obey the Divine commandment
which, he thought, meant the sacrifice of Ishmael. The
circumambulation (tawaf) of the Ka‘bah,
however, must have existed before Abraham. But all the main
features of the hajj, as existing at the advent of
Prophet Muhammad, were undoubtedly based on the authority of
Abraham. Such at any rate was the tradition, and such is the
statement of the Quran, for the order was given to Abraham
and Ishmael: "And Ishmael: "And when We pointed to Abraham
the place of the House, saying: Associate naught with Me,
and purify My House for those who make circuits and stand to
pray and bow and prostrate themselves. And proclaim to men
the pilgrimage (hajj)" (22:26, 27). Thus Abraham not
only rebuilt the Ka‘bah and purified it of all
traces of idolatry, but he also enjoined hajj with
its main features which were therefore based on Divine
revelation. Elsewhere, Abraham and Ishmael are spoken of as
praying to God: "And show us our ways of devotion" (2:128).
The Arabic word for ways of devotion is
manasik, the very word which throughout the
collections of Tradition, is adopted for the devotional acts
of hajj. And it was by Divine revelation that Prophet
Muhammad was led to adopt them.
The only change introduced into the
features of hajj, after Abraham, seems to have been
the placing of idols in the Ka‘bah and other
important places of the hajj. Thus two idols, the
Usaf and the Na’ilah, were placed on the hills of Safa
and the Marwah, respectively (IJ-C. II, pp. 26, 27). The
Ka‘bah itself had within it 360 idols, all of
which were thrown out by the Prophet at the conquest of
Makkah. Some other minor changes were introduced. For
instance, the tribes of Quraish and Kananah, who styled
themselves the Hums, as a mark of their strength and
vehemence, used to stay at Muzdalifah, thinking it beneath
their dignity to join other pilgrims in going forth to the
plain of ‘Arafat. This distinction was evidently an
innovation on the part of the more powerful tribes: and as
Islam tolerated no distinctions, they were ordered to go
forth to ‘Arafat along with the others. Another change
was the prohibition to go naked while making circuits round
the Ka‘bah (Bu. 25:66). Another tradition
shows that before Islam people did not leave Muzdalifah,
where the night was passed, until they saw the sun shining.
The Prophet abolished this practice and ordered the march
from Muzdalifah to begin before sunrise. It may be that the
polytheists of Arabia connected it in some way with the
worship of the sun and the change may have been ordered to
destroy "a solar rite;" but evidently it was to facilitate
matters for the pilgrims to enable them to start immediately
after saying their morning prayers, that time being more
suitable for moving from one place to another as the heat of
the sun was avoided. This also seems to be the reason why
the march from ‘Arafat was deferred till after
sunset.
Asceticism Combined
with Secularism:
Islam discourages asceticism
in all its aspects. It condemns monkery outright, and
speaking of the Christian practice, the Quran says: "And as
for monkery, they innovated it – We did not prescribe
it to them" (57:27). Yet Islam lays the greatest stress upon
the spiritual development of man, and its four main
institutions -- prayer, zakat, fasting and
hajj -- introduces workable ascetic formulae into the
daily life of man -- an asceticism which is quite in keeping
with the secular side of life. The five daily prayers
require the sacrifice of a small part of his time and,
without in any way interfering with his everyday life,
enable him to realize the Divine that is within him. The
institution of Zakat demands the giving up of a small
portion of his wealth without interfering with his right to
property. Fasting requires the giving up of food and drink
but not in such a manner as to make him unfit for carrying
on his regular work or business. It is only in hajj
that asceticism assumes a marked form, for the pilgrim
is required not only to give up his regular work for a
number of days for the sake of the journey to Makkah, but he
must, in addition, give up many other amenities of life, and
live more or less, the life of an ascetic. The hajj
is however, a function which generally comes only once in a
lifetime, and, therefore, while leading a man through the
highest spiritual experience, it does not interfere in any
appreciable degree with the regular course of his life. Thus
does Islam make a man pass through an ascetic course of life
without neglecting his secular duties.
Levelling Influence
of the Pilgrimage:
No other institution in the
world has the wonderful influence of the hajj in
levelling all distinctions of race, colour and rank. Not
only do people of all races and all countries meet together
before the Holy House of God as His servants, as members of
one Divine family, but they are clad in one dress -- in two
white sheets -- and there remains nothing to distinguish the
high from the low. There is a vast concourse of human
beings, all clad in one dress, all moving in one way, all
having but one word to speak, labbaika Allah-umma
labbaika, meaning here are we, O Allah! Here are we
in Thy Presence. It is hajj alone that brings
into the domain of practicality what would otherwise seem
impossible, namely, that all people, to whatever class or
country they belong, should speak one language and wear one
dress. Thus is every Muslim made to pass once in his life
through that narrow gate of equality which leads to broad
brother-hood. All men are equal in birth and death; they
come into life and pass out of it in the same way, but
hajj is the only occasion on which they are taught
how to live alike, how to act alike and how to feel
alike.
A Higher Spiritual
Experience:
The description of hajj
by European writers takes notice only of its outward
actions and has never tried to discover their real
significance and inner value. The details of hajj
will be discussed later on, but looking broadly at the
scene at Makkah during the hajj days, one is struck
in the first place by the unity which is achieved among the
discordant elements of humanity. Deeper than that, however,
lies another value of hajj, and this is the higher
spiritual experience which is made possible by this unique
assemblage of men, the experience of drawing nearer and
nearer to God till man feels that all those veils which keep
him away from God are entirely removed and he is standing in
the Divine presence. It is true that God does not live in
Makkah, nor is the Ka‘bah the House of God in a
material sense; true, too, that a Muslim is taught to hold
communion with God in a remote corner, in solitude, in the
dead of nights, and thus all alone he goes through the
experience of drawing nearer to God; but there is yet a
higher spiritual experience to which he can attain in that
vast concourse of men assembled in the plain of
‘Arafat. Every member of this great assemblage sets out
from his home with that object in view. He discards all
those comforts of life which act as a veil against the inner
sight. He is required to put on the simplest dress, to avoid
all talk of an amorous nature and all kinds of disputes, and
to undergo all the privations entailed by a journey to a
barren land like Arabia, so that he may be able to
concentrate all his meditation on the Divine Being. The
comforts of life are undoubtedly a veil which shut out the
other world from human sight, and sufferings and privations
certainly make a man turn to God. To concentrate all
one’s ideas on God, not in solitude but in the company
of others, is thus the object of hajj. A man may have
the company of his wife and yet he must not have amorous
talk with her; he may be in the company of his adversary,
yet he is not allowed to have any quarrel with him; and all
this that he may have a higher spiritual experience, the
spiritual experience not of the hermit who is cut off from
the world, not of the devotee holding communion with God in
the corner of solitude, but of the man living in the world,
in the company of his wife, his friends and his foes. The
higher significance of a man’s spiritual experience in
an assemblage is evident from another point of view as well.
That there is a mysterious communion from one heart to
another is an undeniable truth; it is recognized even by the
materialist. Therefore the company of a man who is inspired
by similar feelings and who is undergoing a similar
experience would undoubtedly give additional force to the
spiritual experience of each one of such companions. Take
the case of hundreds of thousands of people, all inspired by
the one idea of feeling the presence of the Divine Being,
all concentrating their minds on the One Supreme Being Who
for the time is their sole object; and add to this the
mighty effect of the outward unity of them all clad in the
same two sheets, crying in one language what is understood
by all, labbaika Allah-umma labbaika -- "Here we are,
O Allah! Here are we in Thy august presence." Their
appearance, as well as the words which are on their lips,
show that they are standing in the Divine presence, and are
so engrossed in the contemplation of the Divine Being that
they have lost all ideas of self. Europeans who have
observed this wonderful scene, but who have yet not gone
deep enough into its inner significance, have wondered that,
in this vast concourse of humanity, there are sobbings on
every side, there are tears flowing from every eye, but
perhaps they have never given a thought to the inner change
which thus affects them outwardly. So engrossing is the
Divine presence in which they feel themselves to be that
they quite forget that they are in the midst of an
assemblage; they forget even themselves, and the Divine
presence is all in all to them. God is surely not in Makkah
to the exclusion of other places, yet that vast assemblage
at Makkah sees Him and feels His presence as if He is
actually there in their very midst. Such is the higher
spiritual experience of the pilgrims to Makkah, the
experience not of the hermit shut up in his closet, cut off
from the world, but the experience of a mighty concourse
gathered together in one place.
On whom is
Pilgrimage Obligatory?
Hajj is obligatory on
every adult, only once in his life, and its performance
oftener is voluntary (AD. 11 :1). The obligation to perform
the hajj is further subject to the condition that one
is able to undertake a journey to Makkah: "And pilgrimage to
the House is a duty which men owe to Allah -- whoever can
find a way to it" (3:96). The ability to undertake the
journey depends on various circumstances. There may be a
physical disability, such as renders a man unable to bear
the hardships of the long journey. For instance, a very aged
man was deemed to be exempt from the obligation (Bu. 25:1).
Or, the disability may be due to financial reasons, as when
a man has not got sufficient provisions for the journey as
well as for the dependents whom he leaves behind. The
condition of taking sufficient provisions for the journey is
laid down in the Quran: "And make provision for
yourself, the best provision being to keep one’s duty"
(2:197). It is related that people from Yaman used to come
for pilgrimage without any provisions with them, saying that
they were mutawakkil (people trusting in God), and
when they came to Makkah, they resorted to begging (Bu.
25:6).
There is also an express prohibition
against vowing to go for pilgrimage on foot. When the
Prophet saw such a man performing the journey in distress,
and was told that he had vowed to make the pilgrimage on
foot, he said, Allah does not need that this man should
punish himself thus, and ordered him to get on the back on
an animal (Bu. 28:27). Similarly a vow to walk barefooted to
Makkah was annulled by the Prophet (AD. 21:19). This shows
that a man must have sufficient provisions to reach Makkah
comfortably. Danger to life may also be a reason for freeing
a man from the obligation of hajj. The Prophet
himself and many of his companions could not perform a
pilgrimage after the flight to Madinah, because their lives
would not have been safe at Makkah. And when ultimately the
Prophet undertook a pilgrimage (‘umrah) with
about 1,400 Companions in the sixth year of Hijrah,
he was not allowed to proceed beyond Hudaibiyah which was
outside the limits of the Haram, and had to come back
without performing a pilgrimage.
‘Umrah:
The word ‘umrah is
derived from ‘amara meaning he inhabited a
place or paid a visit to it, and in the
terminology of Islam ‘umrah means a visit to the
Ka‘bah. It differs from hajj in two
respects. It the first place, hajj cannot be
performed except at the fixed time, while ‘umrah
may be performed at any time; Shawwal,
Dhi-qa‘d 8
and ten days of Dhi-l-Hijjah9
are particularly spoken of as months of hajj (2:197;
Bu. 25:33), so that a man can enter into the state of
ihram10
for hajj only in these months, while the actual
devotions of hajj are limited from the 8th
to the 13th Dhi-l-Hijjah. Secondly, the
going to ‘Arafat and the assembling there is dispensed
with in the case of ‘umrah, while it is an
essential part of hajj. Another difference is that
the sacrifice of an animal as the concluding act is
essential to hajj but not so in the case of
‘umrah. The ‘umrah may be performed
separately, or along with hajj, when it is like a
parallel devotion to the latter. Though hajj is
spoken of oftener in the Quran, yet there is an express
injunction to accomplish both: "And accomplish the
hajj and the ‘umrah for Allah" (2 :196).
Tradition also speaks of wujub al-‘umarh, or the
obligatory nature of the ‘umrah, and Ibn
‘Umar is quoted as saying: "There is no man but on him
rests the obligation of the hajj and the
‘umrah", while Ibn ‘Abbas said that the
‘umrah is the companion of hajj in the
Book of Allah (Bu. 26:1). In one tradition it is said that
‘umrah in Ramadzan is equivalent to
hajj (Bu. 26:4). According to another, ‘umrah
is not obligatory (Tr. 9 :86). But any one who performs
the hajj can easily perform the
‘umrah.
There are two ways in which
hajj may be combined with ‘umrah,
tamattu‘ and qiran. Tamattu‘ (lit.,
profiting) consists in combining the hajj and
the ‘umrah in such a manner that the pilgrim
should enter a state of ihram in the months of hajj
with the intention of performing an ‘umrah, and
get out of that state after the performance of the
‘umrah, again entering into a state of ihram in
the days of hajj. Thus between the ‘umrah
and the hajj, the pilgrim profits by living in
his ordinary condition and is not bound by the strict rules
of ihram, and for this he is required to make a
sacrifice, or fast for three days in the hajj and
seven days after returning from hajj
(2:196).11
"The qiran (lit., uniting together) consists
in entering into a state of ihram in the months of
hajj with the intention of performing both hajj
and ‘umrah, and not getting out of that state
until both have been performed, or entering into a state of
ihram in the months of hajj with the intention
of performing an ‘umrah, and remaining in the
same state until the hajj is also performed. Thus the
difference between tamattu‘ and qiran is
that in tamattu‘ there is a break in the state
of ihram, while in qiran that state is
continuous. When hajj alone is performed, it is
called ifrad (lit., to isolate a thing). With
the two differences pointed out earlier, whatever is said
below concerning hajj applies also to
‘umrah.
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8
The two lunar months immediately preceding the
month in which hajj is performed.
9
The lunar month in which hajj is
performed.
10
For a complete description of the state of
ihram see page 392.
11
Snouck Hurgronje’s theory regarding
tamattu‘ has been incorporated into the
Encyclopaedia of Islam by A.J. Wensinck
under the heading Ihram: "According to
Snouck Hurgronje’s suggestion... the
restrictions which were imposed by the ihram
became too severe for Muhammad, so that during
his stay in Mecca before the hadjdj he
conducted himself in a secular fashion. As his
followers looked askance at him for this, the
revelation in Surah 2:192) is said to have
been given." The authority referred to in the
concluding words is not stated, but as a matter of
fact there is no such early authority. It must have
been some other critic of the same type. The
Prophet performed hajj, after coming to
Madinah, only once, and this was also his last
hajj, and it was only about eighty days after
this that he died. There is not the flimsiest
ground for supposing that the verse speaking of
tamattu‘ was revealed on that occasion.
On the other hand, there is the clearest evidence
that this verse had been revealed prior to the
battle of Badr, more than eight years before the
last Pilgrimage.
There is also evidence to
show that the Holy Prophet did not on this occasion
break the continuity of the ihram. Thus the
long hadith which speaks of the Prophet
having entered into a state of ihram for
‘umrah and hajj, says, after
speaking of the performances of his
‘umrah: "Then nothing which was
forbidden to him became lawful to him until he
performed his hajj and sacrificed his
offering (hady, or the animal brought for
sacrifice) on the day of sacrifices, then he
returned and made circuits of the House, then
everything which was forbidden to him became lawful
to him, and the people who had brought their
offerings with them as the Prophet had done, did
the same as was done by the Prophet". (Bu. 25:104).
The restrictions of ihram becoming too
severe for the Prophet, the looking askance of his
Companions and the revelation of 2:192 (2:196,
according to our computation) on this occasion, are
all inventions of an ingenious brain, which,
instead of being exposed by Wensinck have been
gladly incorporated into a standard work like the
Encyclopaedia of Islam, and yet the same
learned writer in his index of Hadith,
Handbook of Tradition, admits, under the
heading Ihram, that the Prophet did not give
up the state of ihram in combining
hajj and ‘umrah: "Muhammad makes
use of tamattu‘ but does not abandon
the sacred state at Makkah."
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Ihram:
The state into which the
pilgrim is required to put himself on the occasion of
hajj or ‘umrah is called ihram
(from haram meaning prevention or
forbidding), or entering upon a state in which a
particular dress is put on and certain acts, ordinarily
lawful, are forbidden. When the Prophet was asked as to what
dress the muhrim (the man entering into a state of
ihram) should put on, he replied: "He should not put
on a shirt or a turban or trousers or a cap, nor a dress
coloured by wars (red) or saffron (yellow); and if he
does not find shoes, let him put on leather stockings
(khuffain)" (Bu. 3:53). Another tradition describes
his own dress in the state of ihram as follows: "He
wore his unsewed waist-wrapper (izar) and his unsewed
outer garment covering the upper part of the body
(rida’) (Bu. 25:23). The ihram dress,
therefore, consists of two seamless sheets, a sheet reaching
from the navel to below the knees and a sheet which covers
the upper part of the body. Both these sheets must
preferably be white. As regards women, they can wear their
ordinary clothes, and ‘A’ishah held that there was
no harm if a woman pilgrim wore cloth dyed black or red or
wore boots (khuff). She further held that a woman
should not cover her face or wear a veil in ihram
(Bu. 25:23). Change of clothes during ihram is not
forbidden, according to one authority (ibid.). But
even women must wear simple dress. The object is to remove
all distinctions of rank, and this is done, in the case of
men, by making them all wear two seamless sheets, and in the
case of women by requiring them to give up the veil, which
was a sign of rank. Probably the ihram dress of two
seamless sheets dates back from Abraham, and the simple
patriarchal dress has been preserved in hajj to give
men a practical lesson in simple living.
Before donning the ihram dress,
the pilgrim must take a bath and utter talbiyah,
facing the Qiblah. The practice is also to say two
rak‘ahs of prayer, but all that is related of
the Prophet is that he entered a state of ihram after
saying two rak‘ahs of the early afternoon
prayer. During the state of ihram, and even before
that, from the beginning of the journey to Makkah, no
amorous discourse is allowed and sexual intercourse is
therefore also forbidden: "So whoever determines to perform
the pilgrimage therein, there shall be no amorous speech,
nor abusing nor altercation in hajj" (2:197); nor is
the use of scent allowed in the state of ihram, nor
shaving, nor the paring of nails. The cares of the body are
sacrificed for a few days to devote greater attention to the
cares of the soul, and this is a practical lesson which
serves a useful purpose on many occasions in one’s
life.
Miqat or
Muhill:
The state of ihram, as
described above, may be entered upon at any time during the
months of hajj, after the journey is undertaken; but
as it would be too inconvenient to remain in this state for
a long time, the law has fixed certain places on the
different routes to Makkah, on reaching which the pilgrims
enter upon a state of ihram. Such a place is called
miqat (from waqt meaning time)
meaning an appointed time, or a place in which a
certain action is appointed to be performed. The
miqat is also called a muhill (from ahalla
meaning he raised his voice), which signifies
the place of raising voices with talbiyah. The
talbiyah consists in saying aloud labbaika
Allah-umma labbaika, meaning or Here am I, O Allah! Here
am I in Thy august presence." 12
As soon as the state of ihram is entered upon, with
the determination to devote as little attention to the cares
of the body as possible, the spiritual aspect of hajj
is brought to mind by all the pilgrims crying aloud that
they are in the august Divine presence. The place where
ihram is entered upon is, therefore, also the place
where voices are raised aloud for the remembrance of God,
and the miqat, is, for that reason, also called the
muhill. The several places appointed for ihram
are: Dhu-l-Hulaifa for pilgrims coming from the direction of
Madinah, Juhfa for those coming from Syria and Egypt, Qarn
al-Manazil for those from Najd, Yalamlam for those from
Yaman (among which are included all pilgrims from India,
Pakistan, Indonesia and other countries, proceeding by boats
via Aden) and Dhat ‘Irq for those from
Iraq (Bu. 25:7-13). For all places within these limits, the
miqat is the place from which the pilgrim starts, and
for the people of Makkah, the miqat is Makkah itself
(Bu. 25:7).
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12
The full talbiyah runs thus: Labbaika
Allah-umma labbaika, la sharika la-ka labbaika;
inn-al-hamda w-al-ni‘mata la-ka- w-al-mulka
la-ka la sharika la-ka, which means "Here am I,
O Allah, here am I in Thy presence; there is no
associate with Thee, here am I; surely all praise
is Thine and all favours are Thine and the kingdom
is Thine, there is no associate with Thee" (Bu.
25:26).
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Tawaf:
The word tawaf is
derived from tafa (he went round a thing), and in the
technical language of Islam it means making
circumambulation of the Ka‘bah. The command to
perform the tawaf of the house is contained in the
Quran in a Makkah revelation: "And let them go round
the Ancient House" (22:29). In the devotional acts of
hajj, tawaf occupies the most important place,
being the first act of the pilgrim on his arrival at Makkah
and his last act when he leaves the holy place. Bukhari
heads one of his chapters as follows: "He who makes
circumambulations of the House on his arrival in Makkah
before he goes to his abode, then offers two rak‘ahs
of prayer, then goes out to Safa" (Bu. 25:62). Under
this heading he reports the tradition of Ibn ‘Umar,
which says "that the Prophet made circumambulations on his
first arrival in hajj and ‘umrah, then
offered two rak‘ahs, then went to and fro
(tafa) between Safa and Marwah." The pavement on
which the tawaf is made is called the mataf. The
tawaf is performed by going round the
Ka‘bah, as near the walls of the sacred building
as possible, but on the north-western side, keeping close to
the small semicircular wall, as the Hijr is included
in the mataf. Before the tawaf, it is
necessary to make ablutions (Bu. 25:77), if possible to take
a bath. Men and women perform tawaf, together, the
women keeping apart from the men, but women are not allowed
to go inside the Ka‘bah until it is emptied of
men (Bu. 25:63). Before Islam, some people used to make
tawaf naked; but Islam forbade it (Bu. 25:66). The
tawaf made on arrival is called tawaf al-qudum
(the tawaf of arrival), the tawaf made on
departure is called tawaf al-wada‘ (the
tawaf of departure), and the tawaf on the day of
sacrifices (yaum al-nahr, or the tenth of
Dhi-l-Hijjah) is called tawaf al-ziyarah (the
tawaf of visit), this last being one of the necessary
devotional acts of hajj (Bu. 25:129), while the first
two are not obligatory though they are generally resorted
to.
The tawaf begins at the
Hajar al-Aswad (the Black Stone) which is kissed (Bu.
25:55), but even the making of a sign over it is sufficient
(Bu. 25:59, 60). The Prophet used to kiss both the rukn
al-yamani and the Hajar al-Aswad, but many
Companions are reported as kissing all the four corners of
the Ka‘bah (Bu. 25:58). In going round, the
Ka‘bah is kept to the left, and seven rounds are
made in all. The first three rounds are made at a fast pace
(raml), and the remaining four at an ordinary pace
(Bu. 25:62). But, if necessary, the tawaf may
performed while one is riding on the back of an animal. The
Prophet performed the tawaf in his Farewell
Pilgrimage on the back of a camel, and allowed Umm Salma to
do the same on account of her illness (Bu. 25:73). The doing
of an act or speaking, if there is necessity for it, is not
forbidden in tawaf (Bu. 25:64,65). Prayers or
supplications may be addressed to God in the course of
tawaf. The Prophet is reported to have prayed thus:
"Our Lord! grant us good in this life and good in the
Hereafter and save us from the punishment of the
fire"13
(AD.11:49). Menstruating women should postpone the
tawaf, and the sa‘y between Safa and
Marwah, for the duration of the menses. For those who enter
upon ihram for both hajj and
‘umrah’ at the same time (hajj
qarin), the first tawaf al-qudum) is sufficient
(Bu. 64:79; AD.11:51). But in the case of tamattu‘,
a second tawaf must be performed when the
ihram for hajj is entered upon.
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13
Rabba-na ati-na fi-l-dunya hasanat-an wa
fil-hkhirati hasanat-an wa qi-na ‘adhab
al-nar.
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The Black
Stone:
Reference has already been
made to the Hajar al-Aswad (lit., black
stone), in the history of Ka‘bah, where its
description is given, and under the heading "Tawaf,"
where it is stated that it is kissed by the pilgrims as they
pass by it in their circumambulations. There is not the
least indication to show where this stone came from and when
it was placed there, but as it was there before the advent
of Islam and was even kissed, it must have been there at
least from the time of Abraham, as the main features of the
hajj are traceable to that patriarch. Yet it is
remarkable that though the Ka‘bah had 360 idols
within its walls before the coming of Islam, the Black Stone
was never regarded as an idol by the pre-Islamic Arabs, nor
was it ever worshipped by them like the idols of the
Ka‘bah. The fact that the practice of kissing it
in the course of circumambulations has been retained, has
been turned by Western critics of Islam into an argument
that Islam retains remnants of pre-Islamic idolatry. There
are even critics who are of opinion that the tawaf of
the Ka‘bah itself is an idolatrous practice. But
a cursory glance at facts is enough to show the absurdity of
this view. Among the innumerable objects which were taken
for gods by the pre-Islamic Arabs, the Ka‘bah
and the Black Stone are the only two which are conspicuous
by their absence, notwithstanding the reverence which the
Arab mind had for them before Islam. The Ka‘bah
was known by the name Bait Allah or House of god, and
there was belief prevalent among them that no enemy could
destroy it. It was due to this belief that when
Abrahah14
attacked Makkah, ‘its people took to the surrounding
hills, offering no resistance, and when Abrahah asked
‘Abd al-Muttalib15
why he did not request him to spare the Ka‘bah,
his reply was that the Ka‘bah was the House of
God and He would take care of it. Yet, notwithstanding all
this reverence, the Ka‘bah was never worshipped. It, no
doubt, contained idols, yet it was the idols that were
worshipped, and not the Ka‘bah; and the same is
true of the Black Stone. It was kissed but it was never
taken for a god, though the Arabs worshipped even unhewn
stones, trees and heaps of sand. And the Muslims, to say
nothing of the Prophet, were so averse to idolatry that when
they saw two idols, the Usaf and the Na’ilah, on the
hills of Safa and the Marwah respectively, they refused to
make the sa‘y between these two mountains, until
a verse was revealed: "The Safa and the Marwah are truly
among the signs of Allah, so whoever makes a pilgrimage to
the House or pays a visit to it, there is no blame on him if
he goes round them both" (2:158). The words used here "there
is no blame on him" clearly show that the Muslims thought
that there was a sin in going round places wherein
idols had been set. Evidently they had not the same scruples
about the Ka‘bah as the idols in the
Ka‘bah were shut up in the building, while those
on the Safa and the Marwah were not only exposed to view but
even touched by the pilgrims. The Muslims so hated idolatry
that they could not brook the thought of idols being
connected in any way with their religious practices. How
could they think of worshipping the Ka‘bah and
the Black Stone, which even the idolaters had never
worshipped? Had the idea of idolatry been connected in the
least with the circuits round the Ka‘bah and the
kissing of the Black Stone, the Muslims would never have
resorted to those practices. They had no hesitation in
turning their backs to the Ka‘bah when on
reaching Madinah they were required to take Jerusalem for
their qiblah of prayer. And it has just been shown
that the Prophet once made circuits of the
Ka‘bah on the back of a camel; he also touched
the Black Stone with the rod in his hand; all of which goes
to show that the Muslims never entertained the idea of the
worship of these things, nor was their attitude towards them
at any time that of the worshipper towards the object of his
worship. The Black Stone was not kissed alone; the Prophet
kissed both the Black Stone, which is in the Eastern corner,
and the Yaman corner, while some of the Companions kissed
all the four corners of the Ka‘bah.
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14
Governor of Yaman.
15
Grandfather of the Prophet.
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Significance
Underlying Tawaf of the
Ka‘bah:
To say that tawaf of
the Ka‘bah is a remnant of idolatry is to force
a meaning on idolatry which it has never borne.
Circumambulation of an object which is considered sacred is
met with in the history of the Israelites, "where the altar
is circumambulated once on the first six days and sometimes
on the seventh" (En. Is., art. Tawaf), yet no
critic has ever asserted that the altar was worshipped by
the Israelites. And, of all men, the Muslim would be the
farthest from the idea of idol-worship in his tawaf
of the Ka‘bah, when he feels himself in the
presence of the One God, crying aloud, labbaika
Allah-umma labbaika, la sharika la-ka labbaika, "Here am
I, O Allah! here am I in Thy presence, there is no associate
with Thee, here am I." From the time when he is still at a
distance of several miles from Makkah, to the time when he
leaves the Holy city, there is but one phrase on his tongue,
one idea in his heart, there is no associate with God.
How could he at the same time entertain the idea of
idol-worship? And what is tawaf itself? It is going
round about the House which is an emblem of Divine Unity,
the place from which sprang the idea of Divine Unity, the
place which would always be the centre for all believers in
Divine Unity. All ideas of the pilgrim at that time are
concentrated upon one theme, the theme of Divine Unity. The
pilgrim forgets everything and remembers only the One God.
He forgets even his own presence, and to him the august
Divine presence is all in all. That is the
tawaf.
Significance
Underlying Kissing of the Black
Stone:
That the Ka‘bah
was rebuilt by Abraham is an historical fact. The Black
Stone has been there ever since the Ka‘bah has
been known to exist, there is not the least reason to doubt.
That it was a stone sent down from Paradise, or that it was
originally white and became black on account of the sins of
men, there is no reliable tradition to indicate. The Black
Stone is, in fact, the corner-stone of the
Ka‘bah, and stands there only as an emblem, a
token that that part of the progeny of Abraham which was
rejected by the Israelites was to become the corner-stone of
the Kingdom of God. The Psalms contain a clear reference to
it: "The stone which the builders refused is become the
head-stone of the corner" (Ps. 118:22). Ishmael was looked
upon as rejected and the Divine covenant was considered to
have been made with the children of Isaac only. That was the
Jewish view, and it was due to the fact that Ishmael was
placed by Abraham near the Ka‘bah. And again
while prophet after prophet appeared among the Israelites,
no prophet appeared of the progeny of Ishmael, and hence the
Jewish belief that Ishmael was rejected became stronger. Yet
it was from the progeny of Ishmael that the last Prophet,
"the head-stone of the corner" in the words of the Psalmist,
was to arise, and the black Stone, whencesoever brought, was
placed as the corner-stone of the Ka‘bah, as a
sign that the rejected Ishmaelites were the real inheritors
of the Divine Kingdom. And while David referred to it as "
the stone which the builders refused," Jesus spoke of it
more plainly in the parable of the husbandman, telling the
Israelites that the vineyard, which in the parable stands
for the Kingdom of God, would be taken away from them and
given to "other husbandmen;" that is, to a non-Israelite
people: "Did ye never read in the Scriptures, the stone
which the builders rejected, the same is become the head of
the corner?" (Mt. 21:42); "The Kingdom of God shall be taken
from you, and given to a nation bringing forth the fruits
thereof " (Mt. 21:43). That by the rejected stone in the
prophecy was meant a rejected nation is made clear by Jesus
Christ. That rejected nation was no other than the
Ishmaelites is borne out by history. And in the whole world
there is only this unhewn stone, the stone "cut out of the
mountain without hands," (Dan. 2:45), that is the
corner-stone of a building which in point of importance
stands unique in the world.
The
Sa‘y:
Sa‘y means
running, and in the Islamic terminology it signifies
the running of the pilgrims between the two little hills
situated near Makkah, called the Safa and the Marwah. In the
devotional acts of hajj, it occupies a place next to
the tawaf. In fact, in the case of
‘umrah, the minor pilgrimage as it is called,
tawaf and sa‘y are the only functions
of importance, and the ‘umrah therefore ends
with the sa‘y unless of course there is an
animal to be sacrificed when ‘umrah alone is to
be performed. The sa‘y is spoken of in the
Quran: "The Safa and the Marwah are truly among the signs of
Allah, so whoever makes a pilgrimage to the House or pays a
visit to it, there is no blame on him if he goes round about
them" ( 2 :158). The word used in the Quran is not
sa‘y but a derivative of tawaf
(yattawwafa). These two hills were the scene of
Hagar’s running to and fro in quest of water for her
baby Ishmael, when she was left there by Abraham (Bu. 60:9).
They have thus become monuments of patience under the
hardest trials, and it is in connection with the teaching of
patience that the tawaf of Safa and Marwah is spoken
of in the Quran, as the context of 2:158 would show. Between
these two hills there is now a street with houses and shops
on both sides.
The Hajj
Proper -- March to Mina:
Tawaf and sa‘y
are the individual acts of every pilgrim when he first
arrives at Makkah, whether he intends to perform the
‘umrah or the hajj, or unites hajj
with ‘umrah (qiran) or combines the two
(tamattu‘). In case it is simply an ‘umrah
or in case of tamattu‘, the pilgrim emerges from
the state of ihram after performing the
‘umrah, the hajj proper beginning on the
8th of Dhi-l-Hijjah when the whole body of
pilgrims moves together. It is called the yaum
al-tarwiyah.16
The pilgrims who have got out of the state of ihram
on account of tamattu‘, again enter into
ihram on the morning of the 8th, and so also
do the residents of Makkah who wish to perform the
pilgrimage (Bu. 25:81). The whole body of pilgrims then
moves to Mina, a plain which is midway between ‘Arafat
and Makkah, about four miles distant from the Holy City. The
way into this plain which is about a mile long goes over a
hill which is called the ‘Aqabah, famous in the history
of Islam because of the two pledges taken there by the
Prophet from the Madinah Muslims. To the north side rises
Mount Thabir. During the hajj proper, the
pilgrims’ longest, and in fact the only, stay, is in
Mina. Mina must be reached before noon, so that the early
afternoon prayer, Zuhr, may be said there. The night
is also passed in Mina, and next day, the 9th
Dhi-l-Hijjah, at midday the pilgrims move to the
plain of ‘Arafat.
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16
Lit., the day of watering or satisfying
the thirst, because on that day the pilgrims
provide themselves with water for the following
days (N.), or because the commencement of the
hajj proper means the satisfaction of
spiritual thirst.
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‘Arafat and
the Wuquf:
‘Arafa or ‘Arafat is
the name of the plain which is situated to the east of
Makkah at a distance of about nine miles. It is derived from
‘arf or ma‘rifah, which means
knowledge of a thing, and ma‘rifah
especially means the knowledge of God. The name
given to this plain seems to be based on the fact that here
men assembled together, as equals in all respects, are best
able to know their God. This plain is bounded on the
east by the lofty mountains of Ta’if, while northward
rises a small hill of the same name, ‘Arafat, about 200
feet above the level of the plain. The Jabal al
Rahmah (lit., the mountain of mercy), on which is the
pulpit from which the sermon is delivered, is situated to
the east, sixty steps of stone leading to the top. Leaving
Mina at noon on the ninth Dhi-l-Hijjah, the pilgrims
reach ‘Arafat in time to say the Zuhr and
‘Aœr prayers combined, after which the Imam
delivers a sermon (Khutbah) from the pulpit on the
Jabal al-Rahmah. The pilgrims’ stay in
‘Arafat lasts only from afternoon till sunset and is
known as wuquf (lit., halting or standing
still), but so important is the place it occupies in the
devotional acts of hajj, that hajj is
considered to have been performed if the pilgrim reaches
‘Arafat in time on the 9th
Dhi-l-Hijjah, but if he is unable to join in the
wuquf, the hajj is not performed. The whole
time of the pilgrims, from afternoon till sunset, is passed
in glorifying God and crying aloud labbaika Allah-umma
labbaika. Before the advent of Islam, the Quraish and
certain other tribes, who claimed superiority over the other
Arab tribes, did not go to ‘Arafat, hence the
injunction in the Quran levelling down this distinction:
"Then hasten on from where people hasten on"
(2:199).
Muzdalifah:
After sunset the pilgrims
leave ‘Arafat, and stop at Muzdalifah (from zalf
meaning nearness), which is so called because by
staying there nearness to God is sought (N.) In the Quran it
is called al-Mash‘ar al-Haram (lit., the
Sacred Monument), and the remembrance of God at that
place is specially enjoined: " So when you press on from
‘Arafat, remember Allah near the Holy Monument, and
remember Him as He has guided you, though before that you
were certainly of the erring ones" (2:198). It has also
received the name of al-Jam‘ (lit., the place
of gathering together). On reaching Muzdalifah, the
pilgrims say their Maghrib and ‘Isha’
prayers, combining the two (Bu. 25:96). There the night
is passed, and then after saying the morning prayer at an
early hour the pilgrims leave for Mina. Those who are infirm
are allowed to leave even before the morning prayer (Bu.
25:98). Before Islam the pilgrims did not leave until the
sun shone on the Mount Thabir (Bu. 25:99) It may be that the
idea of sun-worship was in some way connected with this
custom.
Yaum al-nahr
in Mina:
Thus the pilgrims again reach
Mina on the morning of 10th Dhi-l-Hijjah,
which is called yaum al-nahr (lit., the day of
sacrifices), being the day which is celebrated as the
‘Id al-Adzha all over the Muslim world. After
saying the ‘Id prayers in Mina, the animals are
sacrificed,17
the pilgrims then return and perform the tawaf of the
Ka‘bah. This is called tawaf al-ifadza and with
it, the pilgrim emerges from the state of ihram, by
having his head shaven or his hair clipped. But before the
sacrifice there is another small act of devotion called the
ramy al-jimar, which will be described presently.
Though the pilgrim leaves the state of ihram after
the tawaf al-ifadza, yet he must return to Mina
again, for it is in Mina that the hajj
ends.
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17
The subject of sacrifices has been fully dealt with
in the chapter on Prayer, Section 8.
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Ayyam
al-tashriq:
The pilgrims are required to
stay in Mina for three or at least two days after the
yaum al-nahr, that is, on the 11th,
12th and 13th Dhi-l-Hijjah.
This stay is required by an express injunction of the Quran,
where the ending of the devotional acts of hajj is
thus spoken of: "And remember Allah during the appointed
days. Then whoever hastens off in two days, it is no sin for
him, and whoever stays behind, it is no sin for him, for one
who keeps his duty. And keep your duty to Allah, and know
that you shall be gathered together to Him"
(2:203).
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